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Application-Specific Integrated Circuit, specialized hardware designed to efficiently perform a particular computation …
An entity that can hold assets and initiate actions. Ethereum uses an account model (externally owned accounts and cont…
A human-usable identifier derived from public keys or scripts that indicates where funds can be received. Address forma…
A signed message from a validator indicating a vote or approval for a block/state in a consensus protocol. Attestations…
An independent report providing assurance about a stablecoin issuer's reserves at a point in time. Attestations are not…
A trading mechanism that uses a pricing function and liquidity pools instead of a traditional order book. Users trade a…
Bitcoin Improvement Proposal: a design document proposing changes or extensions to the Bitcoin protocol. BIPs standardi…
A human-friendly encoding used for some address formats that avoids ambiguous characters and includes a checksum. Bitco…
An address encoding format with strong error-detection properties, used by Bitcoin for SegWit addresses. Bech32 address…
The ability to block specific addresses from transferring or receiving a token, usually implemented by contract logic o…
A batch of data (often transactions) added to the blockchain as a unit. Blocks are linked by including the previous blo…
A per-block cap on total gas that constrains how much computation can be included. It helps bound resource usage and af…
A compact summary of a block containing metadata such as previous block hash, Merkle root, timestamp, and consensus fie…
The number of blocks preceding a given block in the chain. Height is often used to reference time in protocols with pre…
The process of broadcasting newly created blocks through the network. Faster propagation generally reduces the rate of …
The compensation paid to the block producer, often consisting of transaction fees plus a protocol-issued subsidy (block…
A limit on the amount of data that can be included in a block. Block size constraints influence throughput, fees, and d…
The expected or average time between blocks. Block time affects latency, security assumptions, and throughput.
An append-only ledger of blocks, where each block references the previous one via cryptographic hashes. This chaining m…
A probabilistic data structure used to test set membership with possible false positives but no false negatives. Some p…
Destroying token units to reduce supply. Stablecoin redemptions often burn tokens when the issuer returns reserve asset…
A property of distributed systems that continue operating correctly even if some nodes act arbitrarily or maliciously. …
A change to the canonical chain tip when a node switches from one branch to another due to the fork choice rule. Reorgs…
A fixed reference point in the chain used to reduce sync cost or defend against certain long-range attacks. Checkpoints…
Extra data added to detect accidental errors in identifiers such as addresses. Checksums help wallets and users catch t…
The amount of a token currently available for trading and use. Circulating supply can differ from total supply due to l…
Assets posted to secure an obligation or maintain a peg. In crypto, collateral can be fiat, crypto, or tokenized assets…
A cryptographic construct that lets someone commit to a value while keeping it hidden, with the ability to reveal it la…
A measure of how deep a transaction is buried under subsequent blocks. More confirmations generally reduce the risk of …
The process by which distributed nodes agree on a single shared state (e.g. the current blockchain). A consensus algori…
An Ethereum account that contains code executed by the EVM. Contract accounts cannot sign transactions directly; they e…
A function that maps arbitrary data to a fixed-size digest. Good hash functions are preimage-resistant, second-preimage…
A regulated entity that holds assets on behalf of others, such as stablecoin reserves. Custodianship affects operationa…
Decentralized Autonomous Organization: an organization governed by smart contracts and token-holder or member voting. D…
Decentralized finance: financial services built on public blockchains using smart contracts. DeFi applications can enab…
An exchange protocol where trades are executed by smart contracts rather than a centralized operator. DEXes often use a…
A parameter that controls how hard it is to find a valid Proof of Work. Protocols adjust difficulty to target a desired…
A mechanism that increases mining difficulty exponentially after a certain point, used historically in Ethereum to enco…
A threshold that a block hash must be below (or equal to) to be valid in PoW. Lower targets correspond to higher diffic…
A cryptographic scheme that allows someone to prove ownership of a private key by signing a message. Others verify the …
Hashing data twice with SHA-256. Bitcoin uses double SHA-256 in multiple places, including block header hashing.
An attempt to spend the same funds twice by creating conflicting transactions. Consensus and confirmation depth are use…
Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm, a common signature scheme. Bitcoin uses ECDSA with the secp256k1 curve to a…
Ethereum Improvement Proposal: a document describing standards, protocol changes, or application-level conventions in t…
Ethereum Virtual Machine: the runtime environment that executes smart contract bytecode on Ethereum-like chains. It def…
A fast, widely used signature scheme based on the Edwards curve Curve25519. Solana commonly uses Ed25519 signatures for…
Public-key cryptography based on the algebra of elliptic curves over finite fields. Bitcoin uses ECDSA over secp256k1; …
A larger time period grouping multiple slots/blocks, often used for scheduling validator responsibilities and updating …
A Proof of Work algorithm designed to be more memory-hard than pure SHA-256, historically used by Ethereum. Memory-hard…
A named log type emitted by a smart contract, often used for off-chain indexing and UI updates. Events allow applicatio…
An Ethereum account controlled by a private key. EOAs can sign transactions and pay gas; they have no code, only balanc…
The mechanism by which users compete for inclusion by paying fees. Fee markets allocate scarce block space and influenc…
A stablecoin backed by traditional financial assets (cash, cash equivalents, short-term treasuries) held by an issuer. …
The point at which a transaction or block is considered irreversible within the protocol's security assumptions. Some s…
A loan that must be borrowed and repaid within the same transaction, enabled by atomic execution. Flash loans allow com…
The rule nodes use to decide which chain/head to follow when multiple competing branches exist. Examples include the lo…
Preventing an address's tokens from being transferred, often via contract-level controls. Freezing is a centralized con…
A node that independently verifies all consensus rules and maintains the full state required to validate new blocks. Fu…
Greedy Heaviest Observed SubTree: a fork-choice approach that selects the head based on the heaviest observed subtree r…
A unit measuring computation and storage usage in Ethereum-like systems. Gas limits and fees prevent infinite loops and…
The maximum amount of gas a transaction is allowed to consume. If execution runs out of gas, state changes revert but f…
The amount a sender is willing to pay per unit of gas. In fee markets, gas price (or similar parameters) influences tra…
The first block in a blockchain, hardcoded into the protocol's history. It anchors the chain and has no previous block …
A message dissemination method where nodes repeatedly share data with peers, causing information to spread like an epid…
Processes used to coordinate protocol changes and decisions. Governance can be informal (rough consensus) or formalized…
A Solana design that forwards transactions to upcoming leaders ahead of time, reducing mempool pressure. It helps valid…
Hierarchical deterministic wallet: a wallet that derives many key pairs from a single seed using a deterministic algori…
A scheduled reduction in the block subsidy. Bitcoin halves the subsidy roughly every 210,000 blocks, reducing new issua…
A protocol change that is not backward-compatible, requiring nodes to upgrade to remain on the same network. If not all…
The rate at which miners compute hashes (e.g. hashes per second). Higher hash rate generally increases the cost of atta…
A tokenized credit representation issued by an entity, representing a claim on an underlying asset. IOUs appear in some…
An increase in token supply over time, reducing each unit's share of total supply. In blockchains, inflation is often d…
A reference to a previous output being spent in a transaction (in UTXO systems). Inputs typically include a signature p…
The creation and distribution of new tokens according to protocol rules. Issuance schedules affect inflation and long-t…
A protocol built on top of a base blockchain (Layer 1) that improves scalability or functionality. Layer 2 systems ofte…
A designated block producer for a given time window in some protocols. Leaders are often selected via stake-weighted sc…
A predetermined ordering of leaders/validators assigned to produce blocks over upcoming slots. A schedule helps nodes a…
A record of accounts and balances (and potentially other state) at a point in time. Some systems call each finalized st…
A node that verifies blockchain data with reduced storage and bandwidth, typically using headers and proofs rather than…
A pool of tokens locked in a smart contract to facilitate trades, lending, or other functions. Liquidity providers depo…
A user who supplies assets to a liquidity pool. In return, they usually receive a claim token and earn trading fees pro…
A transaction field that prevents inclusion in a block until a certain time or block height. Locktime enables timelocks…
An append-only record emitted by contract execution, typically indexed for efficient querying. Logs are the basis for m…
A rule where nodes treat the chain with the greatest accumulated weight (usually work) as canonical. It resolves tempor…
The set of valid, unconfirmed transactions that nodes store and relay. Miners/validators typically choose transactions …
A data structure combining a Patricia trie with Merkle hashing to enable verifiable key-value storage. Ethereum uses Me…
A set of sibling hashes that allows verifying that a leaf is included in a Merkle tree, given the Merkle root. SPV clie…
A tree of hashes that summarizes many items into one root hash. It enables efficient inclusion proofs: a node can prove…
In Ethereum, an internal call from one account/contract to another during execution. Message calls can transfer value, …
A participant that performs Proof of Work to propose blocks. Miners typically assemble transactions, compute hashes, an…
The process of producing blocks in Proof of Work systems by searching for a valid block hash. Miners collect fees and, …
A coordinated group of miners that share work and split rewards. Pools reduce payout variance for individual miners.
Creating new token units, often in exchange for collateral or deposits. Stablecoin issuers mint tokens when users depos…
A scheme where spending requires multiple signatures (e.g. 2-of-3). Multisig can improve security and enable shared con…
A consensus style used by Bitcoin-like chains that combines Proof of Work with the longest-chain rule. Nodes follow the…
The base asset of a blockchain used for fees and security (e.g. BTC on Bitcoin, ETH on Ethereum). Native tokens are typ…
A computer running protocol software that participates in the network by validating and relaying data. Nodes can be ful…
A value that miners vary when searching for a valid Proof of Work, making the block header hash satisfy the target. The…
A single instruction in a virtual machine or scripting language. EVM opcodes define computational and state operations …
A mechanism that provides external data (such as prices) to smart contracts. Oracles can be centralized or decentralize…
A valid block that is not part of the eventual canonical chain due to a competing chain being chosen by the fork choice…
A new coin assignment created by a transaction. In UTXO systems, outputs define value and spending conditions, and beco…
Pay-to-Public-Key-Hash: a common Bitcoin output type that locks funds to a public key hash and requires a signature and…
Pay-to-Script-Hash: a Bitcoin output type that locks funds to a script hash. The spender reveals the redeem script and …
A radix tree variant used to efficiently store and verify key-value mappings. Ethereum uses Patricia tries (and variant…
A network architecture where nodes communicate directly without a central server. Blockchains use P2P networks to propa…
A target exchange rate between a stablecoin and its reference asset, such as 1 token = 1 USD. Maintaining a peg typical…
The secret component of an asymmetric key pair used to create digital signatures. Control of the private key typically …
A technique used by Solana to provide a verifiable sequence of time between events using a hash chain. It is used as a …
A technique proposed in some systems to prove that a node stores a replica of data. Proofs of replication/storage are u…
A consensus mechanism where validators stake assets and are selected to propose/attest blocks. Security comes from econ…
A consensus mechanism where block producers must perform computational work to propose a block. Security comes from the…
A technique where nodes discard old data while retaining enough information to validate new blocks. Pruning reduces sto…
The publicly shareable component of an asymmetric key pair. It is used to verify signatures or derive addresses, depend…
Recursive Length Prefix encoding, a serialization method used in Ethereum for transactions, blocks, and other structure…
A record produced by transaction execution that includes status and logs/events. Receipts are used to prove that a tran…
The process of exchanging stablecoin tokens for underlying reserve assets (e.g. USD) at a defined rate. Redemption abil…
An attack where a valid transaction from one chain is copied and re-broadcast on another chain, often after a fork. Rep…
Assets held to support a stablecoin's value, often used to redeem stablecoins for the reference asset. Reserve composit…
A consensus approach used by the XRP Ledger where nodes agree on the next ledger version through rounds of voting among…
A Layer 2 design that executes transactions off-chain and posts compressed data or proofs to a base chain. Rollups aim …
A widely used cryptographic hash function that outputs 256-bit digests. Bitcoin uses SHA-256 in its Proof of Work and i…
Simplified Payment Verification: a Bitcoin technique where a client downloads block headers and uses Merkle proofs to v…
Techniques to increase throughput, reduce latency, or lower costs while maintaining security. Scaling approaches includ…
A programmable spending condition language attached to transaction outputs. Bitcoin Script is intentionally limited and…
In Bitcoin, the locking script of an output specifying the conditions required to spend it. Inputs provide data that sa…
In Bitcoin, the unlocking script in an input that provides signatures and data to satisfy the referenced output's Scrip…
A memory-hard key derivation and hashing function designed to make brute-force attacks more expensive. Dogecoin and Lit…
Solana's parallel smart contract runtime that allows non-overlapping transactions to execute concurrently. Parallelism …
A sequence of words that encodes wallet recovery information, typically derived from entropy per a standard like BIP-39…
A Bitcoin protocol upgrade that separates signature (witness) data from the transaction's main structure. SegWit increa…
A mining strategy where a miner withholds blocks to gain an advantage in the fork choice process. It can increase reven…
A scaling technique that splits state or transaction processing across multiple shards, allowing parallelism. Sharding …
A separate blockchain that interoperates with a main chain, often via bridges. Sidechains can have different rules and …
A penalty mechanism in staking systems that destroys or confiscates part of a validator's stake for protocol violations…
A discrete time interval in some protocols during which a leader/validator may propose a block. Solana uses slots as a …
Program code deployed on a blockchain that can hold assets and execute deterministically based on inputs. Smart contrac…
A backward-compatible protocol change that tightens consensus rules. Upgraded nodes enforce new rules; non-upgraded nod…
A high-level smart contract programming language commonly used to write contracts for the EVM. Solidity compiles to EVM…
A token designed to maintain a stable value relative to a reference asset, often a fiat currency like USD. Stability me…
The current data of the blockchain that affects transaction validity and execution results. In Ethereum, state includes…
A mechanism where participants transact off-chain and only settle final results on-chain. Channels can reduce fees and …
A root hash committing to the blockchain's state at a particular block. In Ethereum, the state root is the root of the …
Persistent contract data stored on-chain, typically more expensive to write than transient memory. In the EVM, storage …
A maximum total supply of a token enforced by protocol rules. Bitcoin has a capped supply, while some systems have ongo…
An attack where one actor creates many identities to gain disproportionate influence in a network. Consensus systems us…
A time value recorded in a block, often used for ordering and difficulty adjustment. Block timestamps are usually const…
A digital asset represented by entries in a ledger, often issued by a smart contract. Tokens can represent utility, gov…
A Solana consensus mechanism that builds on a BFT voting process using Proof of History as a source of time. Validators…
A signed message that proposes a state change, such as transferring funds. Transactions are propagated through the netw…
A payment attached to a transaction to incentivize inclusion in a block. In many systems, fees are paid to the block pr…
A hash-based identifier for a transaction (often a hash of its serialized form). It is used to reference and track tran…
A property where a transaction's identifier can be changed without changing its effects, typically by altering signatur…
A block propagation protocol used by Solana that breaks data into smaller pieces and transmits them through a layered n…
A node that participates in consensus by proposing blocks, attesting to blocks, or voting in a BFT/PoS system. Validato…
A set of validator identities used to determine which votes to consider in a consensus algorithm. Different systems def…